68 research outputs found

    Law, Science, and the Injured Mind

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    Even while we widely recognize legal liability for physical injury, we frequently discount mental, emotional, and psychological injury. We disfavor tort liability for emotional distress; we prohibit prisoners from suing for purely psychological injuries; and we tax the damages victims of emotional injury receive even while leaving damages for physical injury untaxed. This Article argues that neuroscientific, psychological, and technological advances challenge our traditional ideas about the set of injuries that are possible and that merit legal redress. The Article goes on to contend that, while these advances challenge our traditional ideas, they do not inevitably overturn traditional distinctions within tort law. Rather, they present the task of critically examining and clarifying the normative foundations of distinctions we have historically taken for granted, and considering whether those distinctions survive that searching examination. Part I defines what I call “mind-dependent” injury and presents a set of test cases that challenge current legal approaches to injury and compensation, and discusses the neuroscientific, psychological, and technical underpinnings that moved these cases from science fiction into scientific reality. Part II reviews and examines several legal contexts that distinguish different types of injury and that provide legal remedies for some but not others. Part III considers normative justifications that might be offered for this differentiation, particularly in light of the new information we have. Ultimately, I argue that while new knowledge may require us to reevaluate the distinctions we traditionally have drawn, it does not completely undermine the possibility of normative distinctions between different types of injury. However, it challenges us to better defend those distinctions and ultimately should lead us to abandon the bifurcation between “emotional” and “physical” injuries in favor of a more nuanced approach

    Climate Change Adaptation and the Structural Transformation of Environmental Law

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    The path of environmental law has come to a cliff called climate change, and there is no turning around. As climate change policy dialogue emerged in the 1990s, however, the perceived urgency of attention to mitigation strategies designed to regulate sources of greenhouse gas emissions quickly snuffed out meaningful progress on the formulation of adaptation strategies designed to respond to the effects of climate change on humans and the environment. Only recently has this “adaptation deficit†become a concern now actively included in climate change policy debate. Previously treating talk of adaptation as taboo, the climate change policy world has begrudgingly accepted it into the fold as the reality of failed efforts to achieve global mitigation policy has combined with the scientific evidence that committed warming will continue the trend of climate change well into the future regardless of mitigation policy success. But do not expect adaptation policy to play out for environmental law the way mitigation policy has and is likely to continue. Mitigation policy has been framed as an initiative primarily within the domain of environmental law - a form of pollution control on steroids - and thus it will be environmental law that makes the first move and other policy realms that apply support or pushback. By contrast, environmental law does not “own†adaptation policy; rather, numerous policy fronts will compete simultaneously for primacy and priority as people demand protection from harms and enjoyment of benefits that play out as climate change moves relentlessly forward. This makes it all the more pressing for environmental law, early in the nation’s formulation of adaptation policy, to find its voice and establish its place in the effort to close the adaptation deficit. Toward that purpose, this Article examines the context and policy dynamics of climate change adaptation and identifies ten trends that will have profound normative and structural impacts on how environmental law fits in: 1) Shift in emphasis from preservationism to transitionalism in natural resources conservation policy. 2) Rapid evolution of property rights and liability rules associated with natural capital adaptation resources. 3) Accelerated merger of water law, land use law, and environmental law. 4)Incorporation of a human rights dimension in climate change adaptation policy. 5) Catastrophe and crisis avoidance and management as an overarching adaptation policy priority. 6) Frequent reconfigurations of trans-policy linkages and trade-offs at all scales and across scales. 7) Shift from “front end†decision methods relying on robust predictive capacity to “back end†decision methods relying on active adaptive management. 8) Greater variety and flexibility in regulatory instruments 9) Increased reliance on multi-scalar governance networks. 10) Conciliation

    Rational Structures in Learning and Memory

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    My dissertation aims to disrupt an increasingly ubiquitous view of epistemology which claim that we can study rationality by considering a single belief at a single time. I target three areas where diachronic (i.e. temporal) factors make a difference in the three sections: 1. memory, a system of tremendous importance in our cognitive lives yet which is often reduced to a one-sided question of whether to trust what one’s memory says, 2. learning, where I argue that we should sometimes believe in a way that’s not warranted or reasonable in light of our current evidence, but which puts us in a better position to acquire evidence in the future, and 3. the connection between memory and learning, as exemplified in the case of remembering anomalous events. This project is important because our whole lives are organized around getting things right at the right time. When we try to act morally, we might try to have a life that is built around moral principles, or to become wiser and kinder over time, as opposed to amassing a collection of acts that all have independent moral value. I think the same thing is true of our endeavors to acquire knowledge the process of inquiry is not made up of individual, independent good inferences that happen to follow one another, but is instead about a trajectory where we learn over time, and take the right steps now to get things right in the future, and overall. So I think that to understand this more complete sense of inquiry, philosophy needs to make a place for memory, the system that sustains and directs inquiry in the background, over long periods of time even as the sciences are learning more and more about how natural memory systems work, philosophers have boxed it out of relevance.My methodology is to study natural and artificial learning and memory systems as a process of discovery, a way of using real-world cases as inspiration and guide to the normative landscape. Conversely, I hope that figuring out new normative possibilities can shed light on empirical facts - though this is not the main focus of my dissertation.PHDPhilosophyUniversity of Michigan, Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studieshttps://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/145896/1/skaron_1.pd

    Do Species and Nature Have Rights?

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    Do Species and Nature Have Rights?

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    Kestävyys ja moraalinen merkityksellisyys : ihmiskeskeisestä lajiennakkoluulosta tuntoiskeskeisyyteen

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    Kestävyys on normatiivinen ja eettisiä sitoumuksia sisältävä käsite. Eräs keskeinen kestävyysdiskurssin ja kestävyystieteen eettinen kysymys koskee moraalista merkityksellisyyttä (engl. moral standing). Moraalinen merkityksellisyys on filosofinen käsite, joka tarkoittaa, että oliolla on moraalisesti väliä itsensä vuoksi ja että oliota kohtaan on suoria velvollisuuksia. Nykyetiikassa on laajasti hyväksytty, että ihmisten lisäksi ainakin jotkut muunlajiset tuntoiset eläimet ovat moraalisesti merkityksellisiä. Hallitseva kestävyysdiskurssi on tähän mennessä kuitenkin keskittynyt vain ihmisten moraalisiin vaateisiin ilman tämän ihmiskeskeisyyden (engl. anthropocentrism) kriittistä tarkastelua. Ihmiskeskeisyydessä, joka on yksi näkemys moraalisesta merkityksellisyydestä, vain ihmiset ovat moraalisesti merkityksellisiä tai heillä on paljon suurempi moraalinen merkityksellisyys kuin millään ei-inhimillisillä olioilla. Eläin- ja ympäristöeetikot ovat kyseenalaistaneet ihmiskeskeisyyden filosofisilla perusteluillaan. Akateeminen kestävyysdiskurssi on kuitenkin pysynyt erillään filosofisesta moraalisen merkityksellisyyden tutkimuksesta. Kestävyystieteessä vallitseekin tutkimusaukko, joka koskee moraalisen merkityksellisyyden tarkastelua etiikan tutkimuksesta ammentaen. Tämä maisterintutkielma yhdistää kaksi erillistä tiedollista aluetta, nimittäin kestävyystieteen ja moraalisen merkityksellisyyden eettisen tutkimuksen. Tavoitteena on vastata seuraaviin tutkimuskysymyksiin: (1) Millaisia ihmiskeskeisiä ja ei-ihmiskeskeisiä kestävyysnäkemyksiä on kestävyyskirjallisuudessa? (2) Millaisia kestävyysnäkemyksiä seuraa keskeisimmistä filosofisista moraalisen merkityksellisyyden näkökannoista? (3) Kuinka vakuuttavia ovat erilaiset ihmiskeskeiset ja ei-ihmiskeskeiset kestävyysnäkemykset? Tutkielma soveltaa filosofista menetelmää tutkiakseen eri näkemysten vakuuttavuutta. Puolustan eläineettisiin perusteluihin tukeutuen tuntoiskeskeistä (engl. sentiocentric) ja unitaristista (engl. unitarian) kestävyysnäkemystä, joka huomioi kaikkien tuntoisten olentojen intressit tasa-arvoisesti. Samoin esitän typologian merkittävimmistä ihmiskeskeisistä ja ei-ihmiskeskeisistä kestävyysnäkemyksistä perustuen filosofiseen kirjallisuuteen moraalisesta merkityksellisyydestä. Luonnehdin typologiassani ydinpiirteet niistä, mitä kutsun vahvasti ihmiskeskeiseksi kestävyydeksi (engl. the strong variety of anthropocentric sustainability), heikosti ihmiskeskeiseksi kestävyydeksi (engl. the weak variety of anthropocentric sustainability), tuntoiskeskeiseksi kestävyydeksi (engl. sentiocentric sustainability), eliökeskeiseksi kestävyydeksi (engl. biocentric sustainability) ja ekosysteemikeskeiseksi kestävyydeksi (engl. ecocentric sustainability). Lisäksi tutkielma hyödyntää aiheeseen liittyvää tieteidenvälistä kirjallisuutta ja analysoi moraalista merkityksellisyyttä kestävyyskirjallisuudesta löytyvissä kestävyysnäkemyksissä. Analyysini perusteella esitän, että hallitsevat kestävyysnäkemykset ylläpitävät ihmiskeskeistä spesismiä (engl. speciesism) eli lajiennakkoluuloa, siis lajiluokitteluun pohjautuvaa syrjintää ihmiskeskeisessä maailmankuvassa. Tämä ennakkoluulo on läsnä esimerkiksi Brundtlandin raportin, Yhdistyneiden kansakuntien Agenda 2030:n, planeettarajakehyksen ja IPCC:n raporttien kestävyysnäkemyksissä, joita tutkielmani tarkastelee. Eräitä ei-ihmiskeskeisiä kestävyysnäkemyksiä on alkanut ilmaantua akateemisissa keskusteluissa: lajienvälinen kestävyys (engl. interspecies sustainability), jälkihumanistinen kestävyys (engl. posthuman sustainability), ekosysteemikeskeinen kestävyys, monilajinen kestävyys (engl. multispecies sustainability), mitä kutsun monikriteeriseksi kestävyydeksi (engl. multicriterial sustainability) ja puolustukset eläineettisille kestävyysulottuvuuksille. Tähän mennessä kestävyysdiskurssi on kuitenkin harvoin kyseenalaistanut ihmiskeskeisen lajiennakkoluulon. Perustelen, etteivät ihmiskeskeiset kestävyysnäkemykset ole vakuuttavia viidestä syystä. Ensinnäkin on moraalisesti väärin osallistua lajiennakkoluuloiseen syrjintään. On väärin sivuuttaa muunlajisten tuntoisten eläinten intressit ja näihin olentoihin kohdistuvat tasa-arvoiset velvollisuudet kestävyyden kontekstissa. Toisekseen ihmiskeskeinen lajiennakkoluulo kytkeytyy eräiden eläimellistettyjen ja marginalisoitujen ihmisten, kuten alkuperäiskansojen, syrjintään. Kolmanneksi normatiiviset väitteet vaativat eettistä oikeutusta, minkä vuoksi ei ole hyväksyttävää olettaa ihmiskeskeisyyttä ilman kriittistä tutkimusta. Kestävyystieteen pitäisi huomioida eettinen tutkimus moraalisesta merkityksellisyydestä ja pyrkiä voittamaan lajiennakkoluulo kriittisellä pohdinnalla. Neljänneksi on psykologisesta näkökulmasta arvokasta vastustaa sortavia järjestelmiä, jotka Melanie Joyn tutkimuksen mukaan etäännyttävät ihmiset todellisuudesta ja omasta autenttisesta kokemuksestaan. Viidenneksi tuntoiskeskeinen tuntoisten olentojen tasa-arvo suojelee ympäristöä sekä hyvinvointia vastustaessaan eläinteollisuutta. Eliö- ja ekosysteemikeskeiset kestävyysnäkemykset eivät myöskään ole vakuuttavia, ei-ihmiskeskeisyydestään huolimatta, koska vain tuntoisilla olennoilla on intressejä. Johtopäätöksenä totean, että on velvollisuus hyväksyä sellainen tuntoiskeskeinen ja unitaristinen kestävyysnäkemys, joka sitoutuu kaikkien tuntoisten olentojen tasa-arvoon, mikä hävittää syrjinnän. Tästä johtopäätöksestä seuraa velvollisuus mullistaa kestävyystieteen ja kestävyysdiskurssin paradigma. Tulevassa tutkimuksessa on olennaista kehittää tätä tuntoiskeskeistä kestävyysnäkemystä eteenpäin, tutkia sen mahdollisia haasteita sekä kuinka yhteiskunnat ja akateeminen maailma voisivat soveltaa sitä käytännössä.Sustainability is a normative concept embedding ethical commitments. A central ethical issue in the sustainability debate and sustainability science regards moral standing. Moral standing is a philosophical concept that means that a being matters morally for their own sake and that there are direct duties owed to the being. It is widely accepted in contemporary ethics that, in addition to humans, at least some sentient nonhuman animals have moral standing. However, the dominant academic and political discourse of sustainability has hitherto focused only on the moral claims of humans without a critical examination of this anthropocentrism. In anthropocentrism, a view of moral standing, only humans have moral standing or they have a much higher moral standing than any nonhumans. Animal and environmental ethicists have questioned anthropocentrism through philosophical arguments. Nevertheless, the academic discourse of sustainability has been disconnected from the philosophical research on moral standing. There is, thus, a research gap in examining moral standing within sustainability science by drawing also on ethical research. This master’s thesis integrates the two distinct fields of knowledge, that is, sustainability science and ethical research on moral standing. The aim is to answer the following research questions: (1) What kind of anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric conceptions of sustainability are there in sustainability literature? (2) What kind of conceptions of sustainability ensue from the main philosophical views of moral standing? (3) How plausible are the different anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric conceptions of sustainability? The thesis applies the philosophical method for investigating the plausibility of alternative views. With animal ethical arguments, I defend the plausibility of a sentiocentric and unitarian conception of sustainability that considers the interests of all sentient beings equally. Also, I present a typology of the main anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric conceptions of sustainability based on philosophical literature on moral standing. My typology characterises the key features of what I call the strong variety of anthropocentric sustainability, the weak variety of anthropocentric sustainability, sentiocentric sustainability, biocentric sustainability and ecocentric sustainability. In addition, this research employs interdisciplinary literature related to the topic and reviews the anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric conceptions of sustainability in sustainability literature. Based on my analysis, I contend that the dominant conceptions of sustainability maintain anthropocentric speciesism, that is, discrimination according to species classification within an anthropocentric worldview. This bias is present, for example, in the conceptions of sustainability of the Brundtland Report, the United Nations’ Agenda 2030, the planetary boundaries framework as well as IPCC reports examined in this thesis. Some non-anthropocentric conceptions of sustainability are starting to emerge in academic discourses: interspecies sustainability, posthuman sustainability, ecocentric sustainability, multispecies sustainability, what I call multicriterial sustainability and defences of the animal ethical dimensions of sustainability. Hitherto, the discourse of sustainability has, still, rarely questioned anthropocentric speciesism. I argue that the anthropocentric conceptions of sustainability lack plausibility for five reasons. Firstly, it is morally wrong to engage in speciesist discrimination. It is wrong to disregard sentient nonhuman animals’ interests and equal duties owed to these creatures in the context of sustainability. Secondly, anthropocentric speciesism is connected to discrimination against certain animalised and marginalised humans, such as indigenous peoples. Thirdly, normative claims require ethical justification, which makes it unacceptable to assume anthropocentrism without critical examination. Sustainability science should consider ethical research on moral standing and aim at overcoming the speciesist bias through critical reflection. Fourthly, from a psychological perspective, it is valuable to oppose oppressive systems that, according to research by Melanie Joy, distance humans from reality and their authentic experience. Fifthly, the sentiocentric equality of all sentient beings protects environment and wellbeing by opposing the animal industry. Also the biocentric and ecocentric conceptions of sustainability lack plausibility, despite their non-anthropocentrism, as only sentient beings have interests. I conclude that there is a duty to embrace the sentiocentric and unitarian conception of sustainability that commits to the equality of all sentient beings, which eliminates discrimination. This conclusion entails a duty to transform the paradigm of sustainability science and the discourse of sustainability. In future research, it is essential to further develop this sentiocentric conception of sustainability, examine its possible challenges and how societies and the academic world could implement it

    Federal Land Conservation in Rural Areas

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    Whales: Their Emerging Right to Life

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    We have contended in this article that the evolution of the opinio juris of nations has encompassed five, and perhaps six, inexorable qualitative stages: free resource, regulation, conservation, protection, preservation and entitlement. We have argued that assigning whales an entitlement to life is the consequence of an emerging humanist right in international law — an example of the merging of the is and the ought of the law in the process of legitimizatio

    Whales: Their Emerging Right to Life

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    We have contended in this article that the evolution of the opinio juris of nations has encompassed five, and perhaps six, inexorable qualitative stages: free resource, regulation, conservation, protection, preservation and entitlement. We have argued that assigning whales an entitlement to life is the consequence of an emerging humanist right in international law — an example of the merging of the is and the ought of the law in the process of legitimizatio
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